Chapter 2

2.1 The Education System

The Danish education system is normally divided into a number of main areas according to level and branch of education. The main areas of the education system is presented below, see also figure 2.1.

The basic school (i.e. primary and lower secondary school) Education is compulsory for nine years in Denmark, but there is no compulsory schooling. Compulsory education commences in August in the calendar year of the child ’s 7th birthday. The municipal Folkeskole is responsible for most of the provision, supplemented by the private school sector, i.e. free elementary schools and continuation schools as well as t special schools for severely handicapped pupils. Pupils are normally between 6 and 17 years old.

According to the Act on the Folkeskole, the school must provide the children with both subject-specific qualifications and prepare them broadly for their role as citizens in a democratic society. There is a close co-operation between the school and the parents. The teaching takes its point of departure in the individual pupil ’s abilities and desires. Pupils are normally taught in classes, and they remain together throughout the entire period of basic school. The teaching is differentiated within the framework of the class.

The basic school as such comprises municipal primary and lower secondary schools (folkeskoler), private e elementary schools and continuation schools (efterskoler). The municipal primary and lower secondary schools and the private elementary schools comprise a one-year pre-school class, a nine-year basic school and a one-year 10th form. The pre-school class is voluntary for the pupils but must be offered by the municipalities. Since 1986, it has been possible to integrate parts of the teaching of the pre-school class with that of the 1st and 2nd forms of the basic school. Almost all children (97%in 1997/98)accept the offer of pre-school education. Also the 10th form is voluntary, and in 1997/98, 49% of the pupils in the folkeskole chose to continue in the 10th form. When you look at the entire basic school sector (i.e. the municipal primary and lower secondary schools, the private elementary schools and the continuation schools), you will see that around 60% choose to continue in the 10th form.

The municipal primary and lower secondary school, the folkeskole, is responsible for most of the basic school provision.

The private school sector offers teaching which compares with that required in the Folkeskole, but the framework for the organisation of the teaching is less restrictive. The private schools are so-called private, self-governing institutions. The State covers approx. 85% of the expenditure of private schools. In 1998, 12% of all basic school pupils attended a private school, and 3% attended a continuation school.

Continuation schools are boarding schools which normally offer teaching at the 8th to 10th form levels. An increasing proportion of young people complete their schooling with the last year(s) at a continuation school.

Special schools offering extensive special education for pupils with severe handicaps only cater for a small proportion, in 1998 1.4% of all basic school pupils. Almost all pupils who receive special education are integrated in to the ordinary classes or attend special classes a ordinary schools.

The pre-school class corresponds to level 0 in the international ISCED97-classification, and the basic school corresponds to levels 1 (1st to 6th forms) and 2 (7th to 10th forms).

Youth education (upper secondary education)

The youth education programmes are primarily academically oriented (i.e. they prepare for further studies) or vocationally oriented (i.e. they prepare for the labour market) or both. Additional offers for young people have been established in the form of individually organised programmes such as the vocational basic training programme (egg) from August 1993 and the open youth education programme (Fu) from August 1994.

In all branches of education, great emphasis is laid on the development of the pupils ’ personal qualifications. This is also the main objective behind the new individually organised programmes. All young people must be given the offer of a youth education programme and, through a differentiated supply of programmes, it is largely possible to take in to account the abilities and desires of all students. This is among other things to ensure high motivation so that the young people complete their programmes. Today, 81% complete a youth education programme. The target is that 90% are to complete a youth education programme.

The normal duration of a youth education programme is approx. 3 years. The duration may, however, vary between 2 and 5 years. The students are typically between 16 and 19 years of age, but many are older.

The academically oriented upper secondary programmes comprise the traditional general upper secondary programmes of the Gymnasium and HF (higher preparatory examination) and the more vocationally oriented general upper secondary programmes of HHX (higher commercial examination)and HTX (higher technical examination). These programmes are mean to prepare students for admission to higher education by providing them with the necessary general and theoretical qualifications for pursuing studies at this level. In order to be admitted to the general upper secondary programmes, the pupils have so far had to be considered apt or qualified by their previous school (upon completion of basic school) to continue at his level and have taken the final examination of the folkeskole in a number of subjects.

From next year, this statement of aptitude will be abolished. Subsequently, all pupils who have received relevant teaching and passed the stipulated examinations may continue in a youth education programme largely of their own choice. It does however not mean that access to general upper secondary education will be totally free.

The traditional general upper secondary programmes comprise the 3-year Gymnasium-programme, the 2-year HF -programme and the 2-year adult upper secondary level course. The individual programmes comprise compulsory subjects and optional subjects. It is therefore to some extent possible to compose programmes individually. The programmes are academically oriented and are completed with the upper secondary school leaving examination (studentereksamen ) or the higher preparatory examination (højere forberedelseseksamen/HF-eksamen ). Both examinations qualify for admission to higher education, although often dependent on the choice and level of subjects taken as well as examination results.

These qualifications can also be used for entrance to a vocational training placement in a business enterprise. It is increasingly possible to be awarded credit for parts of a youth education programme taken previously in the form of credit transfer.

The vocationally oriented general upper secondary programmes are 3-year programmes offered a business colleges and technical colleges. They are completed with the higher commercial examination (højere handelseksamen –HHX) and the higher technical examination (højere teknisk eksamen –HTX), respectively. There is an intensive 1-year HHX-programme for young people who have already completed a Gymnasium-or HF-programme. These programmes are academically oriented with emphasis on either commercial or technical subjects. The vocationally oriented general upper secondary programmes provide general study competence and qualify for admission to higher education. An HHX-or HTX-examination furthermore qualifies for occupational employment in trade and industry – usually in training positions. The special 1-1 ½-year entrance examination for the engineering programmes is also considered to be a general upper secondary programme.

The vocational upper secondary programmes comprise the vocational education and training programmes (VET), the social and health education programmes as well as other programmes within agriculture, forestry, home economics and maritime areas etc. These programmes are meant to provide young people with solid professional, personal and general qualifications which are formally recognised and in demand in the labour market. They prepare directly for specific jobs within the different branches of trade. All vocational upper secondary programmes lead to formal vocational qualifications. They must also prepare the students for education at a higher level.

The only requirement for admission to a vocational upper secondary programme is normally that the applicant has completed compulsory education.

The vocational education and training programmes (VET) make up the major part of the vocational upper secondary programmes. At present, there are 90 different programmes within the commercial and technical areas with at total of more than 200 specialisations. As from 1 January 2001, a new act on vocational education and training will come into force. The VET will subsequently be reduced to only having 7 access channels into the basic course which in turn lead to different main courses. One of the elements in the new act is that the students are to draw up a personal education and training plan, and that it will be possible to pursue individualised courses of education and training.

Today, the vocational education and training programmes are of 2-5 years’ duration, the most normal being 3 ½-4 years. It is possible for adults over 25 years of age with occupational experience to complete a programme within a relevant branch of trade in a shorter period of time. The vocational education and training programmes may be used as a basis for further studies leading to for instance a technician ’s qualification and/or a degree in engineering.

A vocational education and training programme starts either at a vocational college or in a practical training place, depending among other things on whether the young person has found a practical training place or not. There is free access to both the voluntary 1st school period (voluntary as from 1996) and to the 2nd school period. At total of approx. 30-50% of the time is spent at school and 50-70% is spent in the business enterprise, and, if it is not possible to find a practical training place, in school-based practical training organised by the vocational college.

The commercial and clerical programmes are directed at office jobs, for instance different types of edp- or accountancy oriented jobs, and at jobs in retail or wholesale trade in shops and businesses.

The technical programmes lead to jobs as smiths, bakers, carpenters, agricultural assistants, hairdressers, photographers, electronics mechanics and transport workers.

Parallel with the vocational education and training programmes, there are the basic social and health education programmes (SOSU), in which practical training alternates with theoretical education at school. The programme leading to the qualification of social and health care help is of one year ’s duration. It forms the basis for the 1 ½-year superstructure programme which leads to the qualification of social and health care assistant. Young people, who come directly from basic school, must start the programme for social and health care helps with an introductory year, which requires a contract with a municipality. Admission to the social and health education programmes requires a training contract with a municipality or a county. The SOSU-programmes replace the former programmes leading to qualifications as home care assistants, practical nurses, nursing home assistants and occupational therapy assistants.

The social and health training programmes also comprise the programme leading to the qualification of educator assistant (Pgu). The Pgu-programme is a basic programme, which aims at qualifying the students for pedagogical and care related work with children and adults.

The pgu leads to qualifications as educator assistants, registered child minders and special needs care assistants etc. The programme alternates between theoretical education at school and practical training in an institution with a total of 1 year ’s theoretical education and 6 months of practical training.

In addition to the VET-programmes and the SOSU-programmes, there are also a number of agricultural, forestry, home economics and maritime programmes. The maritime programmes may lead to the following qualifications: able seaman, engineer and telegraph operator. The agricultural programmes are programmes which may be completed with "the green certificate" for farmers.

The individualised programmes are primarily programmes which aim at the personal development of the participants. These programmes are directed at young people who have not yet chosen an educational direction or who prefer to acquire a practical qualification rather than an academic one. A completed vocational basic training programme may provide vocational competence, whereas an open youth education programme aims at the development of the young person ’s competence and continued education in the broadest sense of the word.

The vocational basic training programme (egu) normally takes 2 years but may be extended by a further year. This programme is not directed at a specific branch of trade but may be composed of elements from one or several programmes/trades.

It is required that the individual student enters into a training agreement, an egu-agreement, with the municipality or a vocational college. The programme alternates between school periods and practical training. Students are given individual guidance during the entire course. Under certain circumstances, the programme may enable the student to continue in a vocational education and training programme or another programme. The open youth education programme (fuu) is an individualised programme, which is normally made up of three different education and training elements. The programme normally takes two years but may be extended to a maximum of three years. With its point of departure in the tradition of folkeoplysning (liberal adult education), the fuu-programme shall enable young people to complete an individually organised course of education, which leads to all-round qualifications and develops the young person’s personal competence. The fuu-programme must be able to cater for young people with very different prerequisites, and it must function as an alternative to the other programmes at upper secondary level, as an access route to these or as a programme leading directly to employment.

The youth education level covers level 3 in the ISCED97-classification.

Higher education

The higher education programmes provide occupational competencies, and most of them are oriented directly towards certain types of jobs in the labour market. Generally, the higher education programmes are divided into levels according to duration and admission requirements, viz. short -cycle higher education programmes, medium-cycle higher education programmes as well as bachelor programmes and the long-cycle candidatus -programmes of the universities. To this should be added the PhD-programmes. Higher education programmes normally build on to a youth education programme. Higher education programmes are theoretical programmes, and some programmes include practical training in the course. The programmes are of varying duration. Today, 40% of a year group complete a higher education programme, and this proportion has been on the increase.

There is free intake to most higher education programmes. It is however up to the individual educational institution to determine its admission requirements on the basis of its available resources and physical framework. The admission requirements are normally based on the examination result obtained at the end of upper secondary education, in some cases supplemented with points obtained for occupational experience etc. Some programmes, such as medicine, are still dimensioned.

The admission requirement for the shortcycle higher education programmes is normally a general upper secondary or a vocational education and training qualification. The short-cycle higher education programmes are most often of less than 3 years’ duration.

The short-cycle higher technical education programmes leading to qualifications in building technology, food technology, machine technology and electronics often build onto a vocational education and training programme. The same applies to the short-cycle maritime and home economics programmes leading to qualifications as master of a fishing vessel and matron. The short-cycle higher education programmes also comprise programmes leading to qualifications as market economist, bilingual secretary and laboratory assistant, for which the admission requirement is normally a general upper secondary qualification. Programmes leading to qualifications as policeman and prison guard are examples of short-cycle higher education programmes for which there are no specific requirements concerning previous education, but where there is a requirement of employment in for instance the police force.

On 1 July 1998, a new act on short –cycle higher education came into force. They now build on to a vocational education and training programme, an agricultural education and training programme or a general upper secondary education programme and have the common designation of "vocational academy programmes". The access routes have thus become broader and more transparent, with better possibilities for the students of being awarded credits, when they continue in a medium-or long-cycle higher education programme.

Medium-cycle higher education programmes normally last 3 or 4 years. Examples of this type of programmes are those leading to qualifications as diploma engineer (BSc in Engineering), librarian, Folkeskoleteacher, journalist, educator, social worker, nurse, occupational and physiotherapist, midwife, HD (diploma in business economics -under the open education system after 1990). The admission requirement is normally a completed examination at general upper secondary level, but it is possible to transfer credits from other programmes as well as to be awarded credit for occupational experience, for instance in connection with admission to the educator and social worker programmes.

The bachelor degree-programmes are at the same level as the medium-cycle higher education programmes. Their officially stipulated duration is 3 years. Such programmes exist within the social sciences, the humanities, the natural sciences etc.

The bachelor programme was introduced in 1993. Prior to that time, all programmes consisted of one unbroken course up to the candidatus -degree which was the first academic degree. Today, almost all university programmes consist of a bachelor programme, a candidatus programme and a PhD programme. The admission requirement for the bachelor programmes is normally a qualification at general upper secondary level. The bachelor programme constitutes a complete programme in itself, but most students still continue in a candidatus programme.

The candidatus programmes are normally of 2 years' duration and build on to a bachelor degree programme, i.e. a total of 5 years of studies. A few candidatus programmes are however still organised as one unbroken course without the bachelor level, for instance the programmes in pharmacy, dentistry, architecture and land surveying. The engineering programmes have a partial bachelor system through the diploma engineering programme. The candidatus programmes consist of programmes within the following areas: social sciences, law, humanities, music, theology, psychology, natural sciences, health sciences, engineering, agricultural science, veterinary science, food science, horticulture and forestry.

The higher education level covers level 5 in the ISCED97-classification. Shortcycle higher education programmes of less than 2 years’ duration however belong under level 4 in the ISCED97- classification. The supplementary examination courses a upper secondary level among others also belong under level 4. A researcher programme builds on to the candidatus programme. It is completed with the award of the PhD degree. The programme is of an officially stipulated duration of 3 years, i.e. a total of 8 years of studies at higher education level.

The PhD programmes are considered to be level 6 in the ISCED97-classification.

Adult Education

In Denmark, there is a long and strong tradition of liberal adult education (folkeoplysning ). The adult education dealt with here is publicly financed and regulated by law, but in addition to this there is a wide range of private offers.

There is a wide range of educational offers for adults in general subjects such as Danish, arithmetic/mathematics, history and languages. This type of education comprises general adult education (avu), single-subject higher preparatory examination courses, literacy courses for adults, teaching of immigrants, leisure-time education under the act on folkeoplysning (liberal adult education), courses at folk high schools and at non-residential folk high schools. There is also a wide range of offers of vocationally oriented courses for persons with varying education and training backgrounds. Examples of the types of courses are: the labour market training programmes (AMU/short courses directed at a specific branch of trade), adult vocational education and training programmes (special adult courses within the ordinary vocational education and training programmes) and open education (part-time courses leading to the diploma in specialised business studies (merkonom ) and the diploma in business economics (HD ), single subject courses from part-time and full-time programmes as such as well as short intensive courses). A lot of the programmes lead to formal qualifications, for instance the single-subject provision, where the courses are completed with an examination. And quite a few of the longer programmes make up complete courses leading to qualifications such as diploma in specialised computer studies (datanom), diploma in operations and production planning (teknonom), diploma in business economics (HD) and the bachelor-degree under the open education system. A few of the qualifying labour market training courses (AMU) may also be pieced together to form an actual formal qualification. The adult education programmes may be publicly and/or privately funded, but in principle a certain level of user payment has been introduced. This however does not apply to the AMU -system. The participants in the courses offered by the adult education centres (VUC) and the non-residential folk high schools for instance pay less in user fees than the participants in the open education system and at folk high schools. The extent of the teaching within the various types of adult education varies from a few hours to complete full-time programmes of several years’ duration. Some of the teaching takes place outside of working hours, while others take place during working hours.

Some of the teaching in open education is now carried out in the form of distance learning.

Note: The age is the theoretical minimum age for the formal courses of education, i.e. excluding adult education. After basic school, the pupils are often older due to sabbaticals, waiting time, change of study programme etc. The arrows illustrate general connections between basic school, upper secondary and higher education but not all actual transitions. Moreover, see section 2.1.

2.2 Young People ’s Journey through the Education System

77% of the 1998-youth year group are expected to complete a vocationally qualifying education programme.

Young people ’s journey through the education system gives a general view of the flows in the education system and can be briefly described as the end result arrived at by a given year group at the 8th form level, if for the next 25 years they display a behaviour corresponding to that of their older fellow students in the course of that year. The figures show the situation in 1998 with regard to student flows and reflect the changes of the year in study preferences, educational structure etc. The flow through the education system has become more effective. 77% of the 1998-year group are expected to complete a vocationally qualifying programme. At the beginning of the 1980s, this proportion was only approx. 60%. The proportion of young people, who do not continue with a qualifying programme after basic school, is still low. 6% do not commence a qualifying upper secondary programme, but around 1% (does not appear from the figure) will however start on a higher education programme later on. Of the remaining 5%, there will even be a great part, who will attend a non-qualifying course of education, e.g. fuu, egu, production schools etc.

23% finish without a vocational competency. Of these, 14% even finish without a competency to pursue studies at further levels.

Of the 1998-year group, 81% will complete upper secondary education, distributed with 31% with a vocational upper secondary qualification, 36% with a general upper secondary qualification and 14% with both qualifications. To this should on a trough estimate be added a couple of percent with fuu, egu, production school etc.

11% of the year group will complete a commercial vocational education and training programme, 19% a technical vocational education and training programme and 7% will complete a basic social and health education programme.

40% of a year group will complete a higher education programme. Of these, 6.5% will complete a short-cycle, 21% a medium-cycle and 12.5% a long-cycle higher education programme.

Note that the sum of students entering and leaving the individual boxes may deviate due to rounding up/down.

¹⁾Persons who will never have an upper secondary qualification. Some of these will however complete a higher education programme (approx.1%), of the remaining 5%, a great part will continue in egu, fuu, production schools etc. and adult education.

Source: Statistics Denmark and model calculations made by the Ministry of Education's Statistics and Information Division.

2.3 Financing of the Education System

In Denmark, the education system is financed by both the State, the counties and the municipalities. Some institutions are independent and self-governing, while others are owned by the State, counties or municipalities.

Figure 2.3 does not cover all educational institutions. It only covers some groups of institutions with a view to illustrating the sources of funding and forms of ownership. Several of the groups belong under the responsibility of other ministries. In addition to the public financing, there are tuition fees a for instance the free elementary schools and for a number of adult education programmes. Municipal primary and lower secondary schools (folkeskoler )as well as municipal youth schools are owned and funded by the municipalities, whereas the free, elementary schools and continuation schools (efterskoler) are independent, self-governing institutions which receive grants from the State.

Vocational colleges, private Gymnasiums and production schools are all independent, self-governing institutions funded by grants from the State. The other Gymnasiums, adult education centres as well as the social and health centres are owned and funded by the counties. Maritime schools and schools of marine engineering are State institutions, which belong under the responsibility of the Ministry of Business and Industry. The Forestry School belongs under the responsibility of the Ministry of the Environment. The institutions governed by the Act on Universities etc. (e.g. universities and business schools) are owned by the State.

The same applies to the design schools and the academies of music, which belong under the responsibility of the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. The colleges of education and the educator training colleges are typically independent, self-governing institutions which receive funding from the State.

Within the area of adult education, the residential folk high schools, the non-residential folk high schools and the adult vocational training centres (AMU) are independent, self-governing institutions which are primarily funded by the State.

Evening schools etc. as well as language schools on the contrary receive funding from the municipalities.

In addition to the above, there are a number of private educational institutions, of which some are approved by the State Education Grant and Loan Scheme Agency (SU).

Note: The survey does not cover all educational institutions –only selected groups. The educational institutions indicated in italics are responsibility of other ministries (both with regard to funding and contents). institutions belonging under the responsibility of other ministries (both with regard to funding and contents).

¹⁾The vocational colleges also offer short-cycle higher education programmes.
²⁾Partially funded by the municipalities.
³⁾Funded by the municipalities until 1 January 1999.

   This page is a part of the publication "Facts and Figures". Chapter 2 of 5.
© Undervisningsministeriet 2000